The Minimum Wage Should Be Raised - 973 Words

â€Å"Every penny makes a difference because low-wage workers make the choice between putting food on the table and paying for electricity or buying clothes for their children,† argues union official and author Beth Shulman. As society continues to grow our means of gathering necessities depletes. We begin choosing either higher education or no debt in the future. The very things we have worked for are simply taken from us all because of price and future impediments. To yield change the minimum wage should be raised to help families, boost the economy and fit the society we have now. The increase in inflation that fluctuates our economy and expenses needs to be adjusted to what the people have to give. However, there are some that seem to have the perspective that if we raise the wage it will cause more disputes. From yours truly I say â€Å"How bad could it be. We have to get worse before we can get better.† Primarily raising the minimum wage will help families.  "When businesses do not pay a living wage all society pays,† said U.S. Women’s Chamber of Commerce CEO Margot Dorfman. This was while she was signing an account by the national business leaders and small business owners from every state supporting the minimum wage upsurge voted for in 2007. â€Å"We pay through poverty and needless disease, disability and death from inadequate health care. We pay as women struggle to put food on the table. We pay as businesses and communities suffer economic decline.† Minimum wage is somethingShow MoreRelatedMinimum Wage Should Be Raised?958 Words   |  4 PagesMinimum Wage Louis Montgomery III English Composition 101 Mrs. Blackwell April 23, 2015 Minimum Wage Do minimum wage jobs help pay the bills? Do minimum wage jobs support the family? Should minimum wage be raised? Will raising the minimum wage reduce poverty? The idea of minimum wage jobs is to help people get work experience without having any skills. Most minimum wage jobs include fast food restaurants and grocery stores. Minimum wageRead MoreShould Minimum Wage Be Raised?1062 Words   |  5 Pagesever pressing question regarding Minimum wage. Not many subjects can ignite a controversy as quickly as that of whether or not minimum wage should be raised, or by how much should it be raised or if it should remain the same. What is minimum wage? By definition, minimum wage is the minimum hourly wage an employer can pay an employee for work. (â€Å"MinimumWage.com†) America’s minimum wage was first introduced by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1938. That minimum wage was introduced as part of the FairRead MoreShould Minimum Wage Be Raised? Essay1596 Words   |  7 Pagesgovernment has so generously termed the â€Å"minimum wage†. In Missouri, the minimum wage has been set at a rather appalling $7.65 per hour while in other states there are wages starting as high as $10. Though arguably the economy is not as sluggish and terrible as it once was, $7.65 per hour will not help those who have children, no college degree and debts to pay. It is not only Missouri that has minimum wage laws, but every other state in America has minimum wage laws in place. Both California and SeattleRead MoreMinimum Wage Should Be Raised1145 Words   |  5 PagesThe current minimum wage is $7.25, which equals two gallons of milk, one fast food meal or two gallons of gas. Can you imagine yourself working 12-hours a day and only having enough money to p ay for rent and put food on the table for your family? With working all those long hours, you can barely afford to pay your utility bills and after that you don’t have enough money or time for luxuries like clothing or vacation. You have no savings as matter of fact, you are in a huge debt and you are livingRead MoreShould Minimum Wage Be Raised?870 Words   |  4 PagesShould Minimum Wage Be Raised? Minimum wage has always been a controversial issue. Many politicians use the argument of minimum wage for their own political propaganda. Some may argue minimum wage should be raised, while others believe it will have detrimental effects on our economy if it is raised. Surprising to most people, minimum wage earners make up only a small percent of American workers. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, minimum wage workers make up about 2.8% of all workersRead MoreMinimum Wage Should Be Raised935 Words   |  4 PagesMinimum wage is an ongoing debate in the United States. There are some people who think that it should be raised to a higher rate and others who think that it should not. There are many different pros and cons with raising minimum wage. Minimum wage is at a balanced rate that should not be raised due to lack of skill, low education, and economic problems. Jobs that require minimum wage are created for young adults who are in college or high school. They are to help one get one on their feet so thatRead MoreMinimum Wage Should Be Raised910 Words   |  4 Pagesmaximize the American Dream on the minimum wage† (Benjamin Todd Jealous). In 1938, minimum wage was created by the federal government in order to protect workers by ensuring a minimum of twenty-five cents per hour worked. Though President Roosevelt had the right idea in protecting the workforce, something needs to be done to ensure that Americans are getting a reasonable amount of money for the amount of hours they have worked. As Benjamin Todd Jealous stated, minimum wage is not enough for the averageRead MoreThe Minimum Wage Should Be Raised998 Words   |  4 Pagesprestigious job at such a young age. However that is not the case, if the minimum wage is raised to $15 an hour, a 16 year old could make $18,000 yearly working only 25 hours a week at McDonalds. Now for tee nagers that have goals for college or a car, that would money to set aside for the future, however most 16 year olds do not have those goals in mind yet, so that extra money turns into wasted money. As of February 2016 the minimum wage ranges anywhere from $7.25-$10 across the United States. Florida’sRead MoreMinimum Wage Should Not Be Raised863 Words   |  4 Pagesthan triple the minimum wage. If the minimum wage is increased, it would eliminate people’s incentives to improve. On top of that, inflation would occur, and poverty would virtually stay the same. In addition, raising the minimum wage would bring on hardship for small businesses. Of course, one may argue that the minimum should cover the cost of living, but people should have to work for their money. The minimum wage should not be raised in the United States. If the minimum wage were to go up, peopleRead MoreThe Minimum Wage Should Not Be Raised858 Words   |  4 PagesRepublican presidential candidate, Ted Cruz, is of the opinion that the Minimum wage should not be raised. This is a large issue as the current federal minimum wage of $7.25 is not enough to support basic living costs in a fair number of states. Ted Cruz highlights the consequences of raising the minimum wage yet ignores the cons of it remaining static (Ted Cruz on the Minimum Wage). In an article in The Atlantic, the discussion of the cost of living is brought up. The article talks about how the

Health Expenditures In India - 792 Words

Like the United States government, the central government of India institutes the national health policy including the regulatory framework and supports for the states. Total health expenditures in India for 2013–2014 was only 4.02 percent of GDP In comparison to 17.8 % of GDP spending in the United States. Government expenditure amounted to 1.15 percent of GDP, which is lower than the average for low-income countries. Even though in principal all citizens of India have universal Access to Public Health services. However, in reality of an inadequate availability of Public Health Infrastructure and delivery in India, out-of-pocket health spending remains high, 69.1 percent of total health expenditures, making this a major†¦show more content†¦Employees working in Government jobs enjoy superior public healthcare access by the Central Government Health Scheme (CGHS). As of 2014, under 20 percent of the population actually covered by any form of health coverage, which reflects an inadequate Government healthcare outreach. (Gupta and S. Chowdhury, Economic Political Weekly, 2014) Private health insurance: As in the United States, there is Tax exemption on policies for Health Insurance and life insurance. Majority of private expenditures are out- of-pocket payments made mainly at the point of service due to inadequate public health delivery. Despite tax exemptions for insurance premiums, there continues to be a limited uptake of voluntary private insurance which could also be a reflection that only less than 2% population pays Income Taxes compared to 53% of population that pays tax in US. (Julie McCarthy, 2017). The US health insurance marketplace is the foundation of the Affordable Care Act, and it needs to work well. The ACA addresses key issues in private health insurance for the benefit of American population which includes, if with a pre-existing health condition, insurers can no longer drop or refuse cover. Insurers can’t charge higher premiums if you are a woman. Insurers can’t sell substandard plans that don’t pay for essential health careShow MoreRelatedIndia s Government Expenditure On Health1322 Words   |  6 Pages64.7% and 45.6% of total expenditure on health, while that of India in the same year was only 17.3%. In the year 2005, the government expenditure on health for Thailand and Sri Lanka was 63.9% and 46.2% of total expenditure on health, and India though it remained significantly low had a small increase from 17.3% to 19.0%. This data shows the very low priority accorded to the health sector by the government in India. In 2007, according to WHO‘s World Health Statistics, India ranked 184 among 191 countriesRead MoreHealth Financing Is Not For Effective Public Health Essay1350 Words   |  6 PagesHealth financing refers to the â€Å"function of a health system concerned with the mobilization, accumulation and allocation of money to cover the health needs of the people, individually and collectively, in the health system†¦ the purpose of health financing is to make funding available, as well as to set the right financial incentives to providers, to ensure that all individuals have access to effective public health and personal health care† (WHO 2000). It is a well established fact that all countriesRead MoreHealth Is Man s Natural Condition, His Birth Right Essay1616 Words   |  7 Pages Health is man’s natural condition, his birth right. It is the result of living in accordance with the natural laws pertaining to the body, mind and environment. Health is multidimensional like socio-economic, environmental, educational, nutritional, curative and preventive. W.H.O.’s Constitution (1992) defines health as, â€Å"A state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Health is important in every individual’s life and so we say â€Å"HealthRead MoreWhat Are The Positive Effects Of The RSBY Program On The Labor Supply Of Women In The Labour Market?1274 Words   |  6 PagesOverall, I find significant positive effects of the RSBY program on the labour supply of women in the private casual labour market. On average, household level access to free health in surance increases the number of days spent in the past week by women on private casual labour by 0.286 days in early treatment districts (i.e. districts that received RSBY treatment on or before March 2010). Mean days spent in private casual work by women at baseline in 2004-05 is 0.45 days in a week. Thus, an impactRead MoreThe first MDG states that the percentage of population below the poverty line should be halved700 Words   |  3 Pageshalved. To measure the progress of MDG 1 in India we viewed two indicators out of 9 indicators of MDG 1. The selected indicators are percentage of population living below poverty line and prevalence of underweight children. 3.3 Status and Trends of the Progress of MDG 1 in India and Its States 3.3.1 Poverty Head Count Ratio (Percentage of Population Living below National Poverty Line) The poverty headcount ratio (PHR) according to the Government of India definition is at variance with that accordingRead MoreEntry Market For P G Pampers Division Next Year939 Words   |  4 Pages Three countries I choose to be the target markets are Mexico, India, and China; and I recommend Mexico as the entry market for PG Pampers Division next year. In order to explain the reasons why I recommend Mexico, I am going to compare and contrast the three countries of the status quo in economics, population, health, business climate (trade), and industry macroscopically. Before analyzing, I have three important points to emphasize in order to explain the reasons why I choose these certainRead MoreBan On Tobacco Advertisements By The Government Of India864 Words   |  4 PagesBan on Tobacco Ads by The Government of India: 1. Summarize the arguments in favor of the ban on tobacco advertising in India  · It was said that French Constitutional council declared that ban on advertising tobacco products was not constitutional, it based on the need to protect public health  · They argued that the revenue logic of huge contribution in the form of excise to the Exchequer is not valid  · According to World Health Organization, tobacco accounted for overRead MoreChanges Of Indian Economy And The Social Sectors, Poverty, And Reform1432 Words   |  6 Pagesreforms in India know as Globalization, Liberalization and Privatization started to create an economy that was the fastest building economy. This reform was successful in terms of building the economy but as India has a diverse society the rapid growth bought inequalities in the society. As a consequence people became opposed to the idea of globalization, liberalization and privatization. India lags behind in general education standard and achievement and also in health and health improvementRead MoreThe World Bank Group s Partnership Strategy For India1092 Words   |  5 Pagesprovided large amounts of financial assistance to India for economic development. The different areas it has impacted include: the development of infrastructure such as electric power, transport, communication, irrigation projects, and the steel industry. For a long period, India was the single largest borrower from the World Bank. At present India is the third largest borrower of funds from the World Bank (Mukherjee, 2015). At current the World Bank and India are working towards a new five year plan forRead MoreHealth Status Of Health Care Essay753 Words   |  4 PagesCompare health status There are 100 core indicators published by WHO to compare countries for their health system. These indicators are divided into Health system, health status, risk factor, nutrition coverage. These 100 indicators provide overall picture of health status of a country. Following table will give such relevant health status data about our countries of interest. Table 1 Comparison of various health indices between USA, Canada and India Indicator/ Country Canada USA India Infant mortality

Cola War free essay sample

†¢Cola Wars The rivalry between the soda giants, also known as the Cola Wars, began in the 1960s when Coca-Colas dominance was being increasingly challenged by Pepsi Cola †¢Cola Wars domestically and abroad (See Exhibit 3) C. Cola industry leaders, Coca-Cola and Pepsi, should practice game theory to better understand their competitive market †¢Cola Wars with the well established brands of Coca-Cola and Pepsi. Organization Due to the cola wars both Coca Cola and Pepsi have a similar organizational structure. By †¢Cola Wars Continue: Coke And Pepsi In 2006 rom the other company to battle with. Pepsi and Coke had a vast understanding on game theory and demonstrated it with their sequential and simultaneous move games †¢Game Theory In Business Connecticut. The authors research, teaching, and consulting focus on game theory and business strategy, and their book on the subject will be published by Currency †¢Terrorism And Game Theory strategy to deal with terr orists? Since September 11, 2001 game theory has been used to analyze how governments and how terrorists should act to achieve their best What Is Significant About Developments In Post-Cold War Ir Theory? will explore the significance of developments in post-Cold War International Relations theory. We will write a custom essay sample on Cola War or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It wasnt surprising that the collapse of the Soviet bloc, arguably †¢Game Theory of analysis since then. In the 1950s and 1960s, game theory was broadened theoretically and applied to problems of war and politics. Since the 1970s, it has driven †¢Cola Wars Management ; Brand Wars of Coke Pepsi By Aditya Krishnan pic][pic]Coca-Cola [pic] [pic] The swirl present on all Coca-Cola cans throughout the world †¢The Cola Wars Cola Wars Shubham Khurana B08053 1. Distinguish between Competition and Rivalry. What specific feature of the CSD market enables it to be competitive despite †¢Rubicon And War Games asking questions in a 9/11 Internet discussion group about the role of a war game exercise on that day. Only one Vigilant Guardian was known or had been publicly †¢Game Theory Reading Assignment web site www. oup. co. uk/general/vsi/ Ken Binmore Game Theory A Very Short Introduction 1 1 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6dp Oxford University †¢Financial Markets Approached By Game Theory guest that take 33 (average of the other guesses would be about 50); but using game theory approach the winner guest can take 0 (assuming that all guests would make †¢Fail Game Theory if they fight a price war, the leading company will lose $200,000 and the new company will lose $100,000 and etcetera. (msl1) This is what game theory basically †¢Game Theory ave a rout on his hands before the enemy has even fired a shot. Long before game theory had come along to show analysts how to think about this sort of problem †¢Game Theory of analysis since then. In the 1950s and 1960s, game theory was broadened theoretically and applied to problems of war and politics. Since the 1970s, it has driven †¢Entry Deterrence In Game Theory or services. Conclusion In this essay, four types of non-cooperative game theory have been used to analyze entry deterrence, which result in different strategies †¢Game Theory Implications In Business ven 65 years after its origin, is yet to catch favour in day-to-day business. Game Theory came into existence in 1944 when mathematical genius John Von Neumann and †¢a Course In Game Theory bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-262-15041-7 . ~ISBN 0-262-65040-1 (pbk. ) I. Game theory. I. Rubinstein, Ariel. II. Title. HBI44. 0733 1994 658. 40353-dc20 †¢Game Theory Trade with a minimum price for maximum benefit. This essay is going to talk about the Game Theory apply in the international business. Article Review Basic Rule

The Longwall Method of Coal Getting Essay Example

The Longwall Method of Coal Getting Essay The article discusses about the sociological and psychological structure within a mechanistic system: a coalmine. Its divided into sections that relate to various issues concerning mainly the humanistic development within a contained social structure and how it interrelates with a larger scale mass organisation. In coal mines, the workers are interdependent for any part of the process needed to extract the coal meaning that each individuals job was strictly dependant on the job which previously needed to be done in order to carry out the process. Generally speaking, the work consists of a primary work-group that is then divided into the individual or pair, depending on the job. A vast distinction exists between the two phases of the structure: before mechanisation and after. Pre-mechanised structure mainly consisted in craftsmanship and was treated as such. Mechanised structures are similar to the nowadays assembly lines in which specific jobs are strictly assigned in order to minimize the costs on labour and maximise output. This article expresses views on both structures and how social and psychological characteristic differences in both interrelate with the output produced within the structure. As noted above, this organisational structure can be divided into two structures, one of which is the succession of the other. The first one is the pre-mechanised structure, better known as hand got mining. In this structure, the workers have full autonomy on their choices of work. This includes also the choice of workmanship that creates an ideal environment for everyone. We will write a custom essay sample on The Longwall Method of Coal Getting specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Longwall Method of Coal Getting specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Longwall Method of Coal Getting specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The individuals are able to carry out different jobs in a rotational succession that eases the stress caused by a strict single job. Their autonomy clarifies the fact that there is no superior control, even given by the fact that supervision is virtually impossible in the mining area. The relationship between the workers expanded also externally form their job site; they were supportive in every way towards family members of their co-workers. Generally speaking this structure produced an ideal social structure that influenced positively their interaction with work. This was mainly induced by the fact that even under good conditions, the amount of work is adjusted depending on the individual. The disadvantages of this structure that the article argues about is the fact that psychologically, the small craftsmen have difficulties in adapting to larger scale structures, which leads us to the mechanised structures. The longwall structure can be best compared with an assembly line similarly practiced in car manufacturing. The process is broken down in a rigid succession of events that is precisely interrelated. This meaning that a cut on one single mechanised job would stop the whole process. This structure includes fewer workers, which decreases the cost in labour. Whenever a large job needs to be carried out, larger groups interact with individuals or pairs. This type of structure can also be compared to the Tayloristic theory that divides labour into specific and mono-skilled tasks. A deputy who however does not have the ability to supervise the workers manages the group; this ultimately sparks sociological and psychological problems. Although being a better structure production-wise, the structure encounters a series of problems that affect the whole environment. The workers who previously were involved with hand got mining have difficulties in adapting to a large-scale structure. This is due to the fact that the size in which a structure exists compromises tensions of small scale. Wages are not evenly distributed. Most workers are paid by cubic meters or by yard, which creates a tension between the workers given the fact that an individual is strictly dependent on the previous individual in the process line. This is also aggravated by existing bad conditions that can be also provoked by the anxieties of the latter. The deputy, responsible for the processes, accumulates tension. The manager and the workers create hostility between each other since both dont support each other given that their goals are very different. According to the article, the work environment needs to associate two distinct factors together. First of all, the production cycle and secondly, the interferences that are brought out from the first mentioned within the social structure as well as the straight hierarchical structure. The association is vital in order to create production efficiency, and according to the author, it can be gained only with years of experience. I believe that the facts explained in the article are a reality as a particular social environment difficultly finds ease in catapulting itself in a new larger environment, and this is true for everything. Mainly, I also believe that the article also deals with the fact that there is no best way to organise a structure. Many factors depend on it. In this case, theoretically, a combination of the two structures would bring about to maximum output and perfect working conditions.

The Influence of the News Media †Marketing Essay

The Influence of the News Media – Marketing Essay Free Online Research Papers The Influence of the News Media Marketing Essay When the founding fathers of this nation established the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, they saw the freedom of speech and press as a fundamental right necessary to ensure the continued existence of liberty. The role of the media, especially, news media was to be that of a gatekeeper, acting as a part of the system of checks and balances built into the framework of government. However, along with the development of society, news media made and is making more and more influence on people. Currently, in a nation where our children spend more time watching television and listening to the radio than they do going to school, they readily believe what they see and hear in the media. These children grow up to become adults who, for the most part, still base their opinions and beliefs on what they see and hear in the media. Although it is true that the media is not effective in telling people what to think, it possesses great power in influencing what people think about. For the most part, the media is able to decide from what angle they wish to present an issue. This is often done without considering the consequences of what they are purporting to be the truth. Take the bombing in city for instance. When the media first reported the tragedy, they speculated that this was the work of â€Å"Dongtu†(East Turkistan) terrorists. This resulted in numerous public outcries to shut off the flow of immigrants into big cities, especially from the Sinkiang. This media speculation also increased gap between the southwest of China and the rest of the population. The media has been responsible for the creation and spread of many stereotypes. Irresponsible, speculative reporting has already unfairly damaged the credibility of the southwest of China. Further evidence suggests that people who rely upon the television news programs as their primary source of information tend to be more cynical and confused when it comes to political issues. This is especially true when the news coverage involves foreign policy. In conclusion, I have to acknowledge the truth of that news media have passive influence for society, we should possess an objective thinking when we are concerning the news. Research Papers on The Influence of the News Media - Marketing EssayRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenAnalysis Of A Cosmetics AdvertisementMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever Product19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraPETSTEL analysis of IndiaInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesQuebec and CanadaDefinition of Export QuotasHip-Hop is Art

Which Schools Use the Universal College Application Complete List

Which Schools Use the Universal College Application Complete List SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you’re applying to college soon, you might have heard about the Universal College Application, a service that allows you to apply to multiple colleges with one application. So which colleges are on the Universal College Application? And is it worth using? We will give the complete list and also weigh the pros and cons of the UCA. What Is the Universal College Application? The UCA was created in 2007, and currently serves 44 colleges. While that’s a pretty big list, it’s much smaller than the list of colleges the Common Application serves. The Common Application is the Universal College Application’s main competitor, and works with over 500 colleges. However, just because fewer colleges accept the Universal College Application as opposed to the Common Application doesn’t mean it’s seen as worse. Colleges that accept both applications treat them as equal choices. For example, Harvard presents them as equal choices, listing â€Å"Common/Universal College Application† as a required part of your application. On their FAQ page, Cornell clarifies that both the Common and Universal College Application are treated equally:â€Å"Although there are slight differences in the applications, it is important to recognize that both applications provide us with the critical information that our selection committees will need to make thoughtful admissions decisions and they will be viewed equally.† So if the schools you’re interested in use both the Universal College Application and the Common Application, you can choose which one to use. The Biggest Names on the Universal College Application Many big name schools in the US use the Universal College Application, including three of the Ivy League schools – Cornell, Harvard, and Princeton. Brandeis University Cornell University Duke University Harvard College Johns Hopkins University Princeton University Rice University The University of Chicago Vanderbilt University Notably, the rest of the Ivy League – Brown, Dartmouth, Columbia, the University of Pennsylvania, and Yale – doesn’t use the Universal College Application. Big names like Stanford, MIT, and Caltech don’t use it either. The Universal College Application by State 21 states, plus Bulgaria, have colleges that accept the Universal College Application. New York and Massachusetts have the most UCA schools, while most of the other states on the list only have one or two.Check out the complete list below. Florida Embry Riddle Aeronautical University – Daytona Beach, FL Lynn University – Boca Raton, FL University of Tampa – Tampa, FL Georgia Savannah College of Art and Design (SCAD) - Savannah, Georgia Illinois The University of Chicago – Chicago, IL Maryland Johns Hopkins University – Baltimore, MD Notre Dame of Maryland University – Baltimore, MD Massachusetts Bay Path College – Longmeadow, MA Brandeis University – Waltham, MA Dean College – Franklin, MA Emerson College – Boston, MA Fisher College – Boston, MA Harvard College – Cambridge, MA Wentworth Institute of Technology – Boston, MA Michigan Lawrence Technological University – Southfield, MI Missouri Westminster College – Fulton, MO New Jersey Monmouth University – West Long Branch, NJ Princeton University – Princeton, NJ New York Colgate University – Hamilton, NY Cornell University – Ithaca, NY Nazareth College – Rochester, NY Rensselaer Polytechnic University – Troy, NY Rochester Institute of Technology – Rochester, NY University of Rochester – Rochester, NY Utica College – Utica, NY North Carolina Duke University – Durham, NC Gardner-Webb University – Boiling Springs, NC Ohio Lake Erie College – Painesville, OH Pennsylvania Wilson College – Chambersburg, PA Rhode Island Bryant University – Smithfield, RI Johnson and Wales University – Providence, RI Roger Williams University– Bristol, RI South Carolina Newberry College – Newberry, SC Tennessee Christian Brothers University – Memphis, TN Vanderbilt University – Nashville, TN Texas Rice University – Houston, TX Vermont Landmark College – Putney, VT Southern Vermont College – Bennington, VT Virginia RandolphCollege –Lynchburg, VA West Virginia University of Charlestown – Charlestown, WV Wisconsin Beloit College– Beloit, WI Milwaulkee School of Engineering – Milwaukee, WI Wyoming University of Wyoming – Laramie, WY Bulgaria American University in Bulgaria – Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria States without Universal College Application Colleges Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine,Minnesota, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Dakota,Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Washington, DC. List of colleges via the Universal College Application website. Should You Use the Universal College Application? If you see a lot of your target schools on this list, you’re probably wondering if you should use the Universal College Application, or go with the Common Application instead. The main benefit to the Common Application is how many colleges it works with. So if you see most or all of the schools you want to apply to (excluding public state schools, which typically have their own application systems) on this list, you can go with the Universal College Application. The UCA is faster and more flexible in many ways – you can write your essay on whatever you want and include links to online content you’ve produced. Plus, since it’s a smaller service, you can get faster technical support if you need it and are less likely to run into submission problems. However, it’s very likely that you have a few colleges on your application list that only take the Common Application, not the Universal College Application. If that’s the case, you might want to consider going with the Common Application instead, since it will save you time. What’s Next? We have a thorough discussion of the differences between the Universal College Application and the Common Application in this post if you want to read more about the two options. Studying for the SAT or ACT? Learn for sure which one you will do best on. Get tips for writing the ACT essay or SAT essay, step-by-step. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

The Contributions of the FIFA world cup 2010 to the Local Businesses Dissertation

The Contributions of the FIFA world cup 2010 to the Local Businesses in South Africa - Dissertation Example This type of activity is regarded as one of the most fastidious importance to emerging economies and growing commercial countries, such as South Africa. However, comparatively small work has been completed by researchers to reveal the effect of mega-events, such as the football world cup, on informal as well as formal sectors in emerging economies. Known the comparative size as well as strength of the involvement made by informal sector to different economic activities in the developing part of the world, it has been significant to consider â€Å"how an event like the world cup may help shape the entrepreneurial potential of informal and formal sector participants† (Venter et al., 2012, p.449). This paper is aimed at providing a detail analysis of different contributions made by this world cup on the local businesses of the country. FIFA world cup and economy of South Africa: It has been well-established that super-events are most expected to possess a considerable effect on t he business as well as socio-economic development of the host nations and localities. Commanding as well as hosting of mega-events, such as the football world cup, has been a means through which regions compete in respect to attracting as well as retaining greater volume of capital mobility through place improvement. Also with the help of re-imaging as well as regeneration of local businesses of these regions has been realised. Particularly, sport hallmark as well as mega-events, which have been hosted on either as a one-off basis or as regular basis, has been transformed as increasingly important in the contemporary period of globalisation. Some of the most high profile illustrations of these super-events would incorporate the â€Å"Olympic Games, the Rugby and Cricket world cups, and the FIFA soccer world cup†. These events have been provided to create greater level of emphasis on the development of industrial as well as agricultural sector of the developing countries. Sout h Africa being a developing country has also been expected to be greatly helped by the mega-events like the soccer world cup. Several other important works have been discussed by several other researchers regarding the fact that tourism and travel industry of the developing countries of the world (du Plessis and Maennig, 2010, p.2). Key aspects of concern in regard to the hosting of super-events mainly in the developing part of the world relate to process of optimising their effects for economic as well as social development. These issues are also related to the building of greatest level of national identity along with significant volume of foreign policy effects. The distributional as well as allocative benefits of hosting super-events in the developing countries of the world have been scrutinised with many vital observers. These observers have suggested that widespread growth or development benefits cannot be considered as a necessary corollary of the process of hosting of these types of super-events. This is due to the fact that the marginalised groups can be given little benefit (Venter et al., 2012, p.450). Positive contributions in South Africa: Even though potential opportunities for medium as well as large businesses related to the strategy of hosting of super-events has obtained significant amount of academic notice, limited consideration has been intended for the

Legal Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Legal Philosophy - Essay Example It is not possible to choose one over the other and nor is it possible to stand in between and interrupt the constant tension brought about by it cyclic relation. Whether a particular legal philosophy is merely an abstraction or of practical value is one that is constantly changing in the highway of history where old philosophies are constantly revived and injected with new vigor and applied to new contexts which stimulate to further growth of jurisprudence itself. The application of legal philosophy is found in in a different branch of law, in law practice, legislation and judicial adjudication particularly, and because of this many are of the opinion that jurisprudence does not have value in day to day life. This problem is aggravated by the human errors of lawyers, public officials and other people educated in the nuances of law. The mental stimulations and practical value of jurisprudence is best studied and determined from the tension of the dichotomies of theoretical traditions particularly between legal positivism and natural legalism, legal formalism and legal realism, public choice theories and critical legal studies, liberal and socialist-progressive ideologies, indeterminacy/mystification and determinacy of judicial decisions, and of subjectivism and structuralism. Lon L. Fuller (1981)2, on the purpose of legal philosophy, says: As I see it, the object of legal philosophy is to give an effective and meaningful direction to the work of lawyers, judges, legislatures, and law teachers. If it leaves the activities of these men untouched, it it has no implications for the question of what they do with their working days, then legal philosophy is a failure. Legal Positivism versus Natural Law Theory. For legal positivists, rights are are such and are legal if and only if they are declared to be such by the sovereign legal authority. From their viewpoint, the government exists before the right. The sovereign, in the form of legislature or executive with constitutional legislative powers or an administrative body enacting regulations with status of law, being the exclusive source of law must grant a right otherwise it does not exist. The magistrate only enforces the strictures of the law. For legal positivists, the criterion for validity of law is posited by the sovereing and is other than morality because for them, "it is in no sense a necessary truth that laws reproduce or satisfy certain demands of morality, though, in fact they have often done so. (Hart, p.181-2)3 The law as a social construct is the premise. The moral and political aspect of law is not denied, but positivism insists that the descriptive or conceptual

Course Work Essay Example for Free

Course Work Essay As the Vice President of the Sales, it is his responsibility in the first place to handle sales management leadership and sales compensation program according to David J. Cichelli (p. 38) and not the products being sold in the market. Therefore, it is inappropriate for a new Vice-President of Sales to discuss defective wrenches before a CEO meeting especially that he is unaware of the ethical guidelines being practiced by the organization. In this case, he has to take extra care to discuss the matter to the group without appearing discourteous or impolite. In the first place, the newly hired CEO (Vice President of Sales) has the idea of communicating the concept of customer satisfaction that is vital in the growth of sales as well as important in his role as sales management leader to provide the utmost satisfaction. He also wants to ensure that collaboration among members of the team is practiced as he assumes his duty as part of the CEO team. Evaluating the scenario, he has to look into several avenues and prepare materials to support his argument. First, he has to review the policies of the organization as well as a survey on customer feedback of the product conducted previously, from where he will base his argument. Any information about the company’s structure, ethical guidelines, and procedures will help him shape his analysis and proposal to redirect the company’s concept of customer satisfaction. Tactfully, he may present the problem as part of his initial report using the SWOT analysis from there he may initiate actions essential to the growth of sales. SWOT analysis according to Robert Price is helpful in the â€Å"analysis of the external environment†¦ and internal situation† to see the whole scenario of the problem (p. 104). Second, he may suggest innovation of the product to be introduced as a new model through which the customer may perceive the product having good quality that will â€Å"solve critical customer problem† (Rafinejad, p. 208). Product innovation should be carefully planned to attain the best improvement of the product because as Rafinejad stated, â€Å"†¦too many revisions to a product are disruptive to customers’ business operation and create confusion† (ibid). Third, the company may notify the public through a well-developed notification plan which may includes â€Å"customers’ reaction to the planned changed† (Rafinejad, p. 210). Once the customers’ wants finally established, a formal change notification may take place; this involves e-mail notification, advertising, and other public relation tasks. The need for strong sense of business ethics rooted on customer satisfaction must also be emphasized. This generally requires internal streamlining. Bjorn Andersen stated that business ethics has â€Å"a strong motivational effect that can spur individuals and indeed entire organization to unheard-of peaks of performance† (p. 7). This creates basically a true sense of dedication on the part of the employees in the delivery of products to the customers. To realize this goal, the company has to redefine corporate culture and restructure the organization in such a way that supports the objective of the company as part of the innovation process. Redefinition includes identifying corporate social responsibility approach with hands on business practices through transformation process on the operation level. Andersen mentioned that the process involves policy setting, overall image creation, and pointing out direction for the organization’s ethics endeavor (p. 28). To support the endeavor, the company has to evaluate its structure in a way that accountability for success and/or falling is determined. Likewise, certain business activities must be redirected through assigning corporate ethics program. Linda K. Trevino and Gary R. Weaver suggested to â€Å"formalize company values and expectations† in which multiple elements has to look into such as â€Å"dedicated staff, supporting structures and policies, and extensive employee involvement† (p. 91). Conclusion: The new Vice President of Sales with his expertise in the field of business may share his knowledge that will help the business grow. The defective wrenches may cause the business to fall due to customer complaints that are not dealt with properly. Assigning tasks that will save the image of the company will be realized through initiatives for change in products and corporate ethics. This will be done by means of undertaking strategic planning based on research that may include adapting new policies for the company. Reference Andersen, B. (2004). Bringing Business Ethics to Life: Achieving Corporate Social Responsibility. USA: American Society for Quality. Cichelli, D. J. (2003) Compensating the Sales Force: A Practical Guide to Designing Winning Sales Compensation Plans. USA: McGraw-Hill Professional. Price, R. (2007) The Eye of Innovation: Recognizing Possibilities and Managing the Creative Enterprise. USA: Yale University Press. Rafinejad, D. (2007) Innovation, Product Development and Commercialization: Case Studies and Key Practices for Market Leadership. USA: Ross Publishing. Trevino, L. K. Weaver, G. R. (2003). Managing Ethics in Business Organizations: Social Scientific Perspectives. USA: Stanford University Press.

Equality in School Finance Essay -- essays research papers fc

Equality in School Finance In The Story of the Education Dollar, Odden, Monk, Nakib and Picus describe some basic facts about education spending in the United States to facilitate an understanding of the level and uses of the federal government's policies on education funding. The purpose of the authors' discussion is to argue that public education facilities need to change their focus on the consumption of educational resources to a focus on producing high levels of student achievement. They contend that such a redirection in focus will require large improvements in student achievement, given that only about 10 percent of students currently attain the desired level of achievement across the board in mathematics, science, writing, history, geography and civics. James Traub expands on their discussion to argue for the necessary inclusion of after-care activities for inner-city youth in any successful educational spending program. Odden et al. note that their analysis of spending patterns across the 50 states is supported by the conclusions reached by the Finance Center of the Consortium for Policy Research in Education (CPRE), although the results of their research did diverge in some significant ways. Odden et al. examined spending and staffing patterns at the district and school levels. They also scrutinized staffing patterns of expenditures by function and program and spending across curriculum content areas in California, Florida and New York. Their major conclusion was that while there had been considerable national investment in public education during the 20th century, as a rule the funds were distributed unfairly and used ineffectively. The largest portion of increased spending during the 20th century occurred to hire more teachers to reduce class size and to provide more out-of-classroom services, particularly for special education purposes. However, they argue that neither strategy boosted student achievement very much. Also, although education spending has increased teachers' salaries, it has not been used to improve the quality of the teachers. Notably, Odden et al. found that both low-spending and high-spending school districts fund education spending in the same proportions, meaning that high-spending districts tend to have lower class sizes and higher teacher salaries. The authors argue this discrepancy reflects the "fiscal regulariti... ...otes that while we must, as Odden et al. advocate, approach each reform program as though it could provide unlimited success, we must also take into account the demonstrated limitation of such programs. Significantly, blacks still score about 200 points lower than whites on College Boards and an average 17-year-old black student reads at a 13-year-old level. Thus, Traub argues, schools are not the final arbiter of student achievement. He contends that a child's home life and social culture, which can fail to nurture mental and intellectual stimulation, should be taken into consideration when drafting reform programs. He suggests the inclusion of programs such as Impact, a multi-purpose, social service program that offers year-round day care, adult literacy programs, and health care programs. At the least, the calls for the need for after-school activities that provides an alternative environment for inner-city youth. Bibliography Odden, Allan, Monk, David, Nakib, Yasser and Picus, Lawrence. "The Story of the Education Dollar." Phi Delta Kappan (October, 1995): 161-168. Traub, James. "What No School Can Do." New York Times Magazine (January 16, 2000): 52-91.

An American Family Essay

Critics predicted that â€Å"[b]y the end of the mid-century, the American family will no longer exist as we know it†Ã¢â‚¬â€a line that holds true on the current situation of the country. The image of an American family is as fluid as fashion. This connotation is evident with the number of juvenile delinquents, divorce hearings and domestic violence cases that is reported each day. The advent of democracy and liberalism has perhaps triggered the immense transformation on viewing an American family. Globalization for one, takes the largest piece of this shift. The country’s unbolting wrap on the issue of foreign affairs has created a large impact on every American’s life. Diversity they say, has made the Americans mature. But what most do not realize is that the country has been divided by these ‘borrowed’ or ‘adopted’ ordeals. Similar to the American dream, an American family’s dignifying character has shifted to a somewhat aggressive and liberal type (Glick, 2006). Conceivably, this change can be charged to the saying that the world is in constant flux. However, republicans would resent the changes that has transcribed. Given the percentage of migrating individuals and the increase of Americans going abroad—it is most likely that other culture will blend in (or in the near future dominate) with what is inside the core of American virtues. Simple logic would explain this argument. To date, a laissez faire scenario is occurring. More and more changes are to occur if Americans will not pave a way to keep the tradition. It is a fact that every country has their respective culture, beliefs and tradition. And the endpoint of this matter would either be of the benefit of the alien or of the resident. Hence, the real picture on this squabble marks as to whether these changes have preserved the distinctive quality of an American family or otherwise. And in this case, there is a huge possibility that the picture will be dominated by the visiting forces. The shift is in fast pace—the critics may have predicted the future accurately. Reference Glick, P. C. (2006). The Family Life Cycle and Social ChangeThe Family Life Cycle and Social Change. Family Relations, 38(2).

Conflict Process and Management

Conflict Process Managing Conflict Case Studies Organizational Conflict Nidhi S Kohli 123720 R L Aparna 123716 Manisha K 123717 Priyanka G 123726 Swetha Joshi 123734 Sri Lakshmi 123732 CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 1. CONFLICT PROCESS i. Stephen. P. Robbins’s Classification ii. Ashwattapa’s Compilation 2. MANAGING CONFLICT * Conflict Resolution Techniques * Conflict Stimulation Techniques * Types of Conflict and Resolution 3. CASE STUDIES i.Maruti Suzuki – Manesar Plant * Introduction * Findings * Suggestion & Conclusions ii. Indian Health Care Organization * Introduction * Findings * Suggestion & Conclusions 4. BIBLIOGRAPHY Introduction Conflict Defined It is a process which begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affects, something that the first party cares about. Two main Schools of Thought * Traditional View A Belief that all conflicts are harmful and should be avoided. * Human Relations ViewBelief tha t conflict is natural and an inevitable outcome in any group. It is not only a positive force but is also necessary for a group to perform well. CONFLICT PROCESS (As proposed by Stephen Robbins) Stage 1: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility: * The first step in the conflict process is the presence of certain conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise. * They need not lead directly to conflict, but one of them is necessary for conflict to arise. * These are the SOURCES of conflict. They can be broadly classified as: i. Communication Semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and â€Å"noise† * Semantic difficulties arise as a result of difference in training, selective perception & inadequate information about others. * Potential to conflict arises in case of information overload or when information is too less. * Differing word connotations, jargon, insufficient exchange of information & noise in the communication channel are antecedent conditions to conflic t. * The filtering process as information is passed through different levels of organization offer potential opportunities for conflict to arise. i. Structure * Size and specialization of jobs The larger the group & more specialized its activities, the greater the likelihood of conflict. The potential of conflict is greatest when group members are younger & turnover is high. * Jurisdictional clarity/ambiguity The greater the jurisdictional ambiguity in precisely defining responsibility for actions, the greater the potential of conflict, as it increases inter-groups fighting for control of resources & territory. * Member/goal incompatibilityGroups within organizations have diverse goals. This diversity of goals among groups is a major source of conflict. * Leadership styles (close or participative) Tight & continuous observation with general control of other’s behaviors increases conflict potential. Also, research points out that participation & conflict are highly correlated, because participation encourages the promotion of differences. * Reward systems (win-lose) Conflict is created when one member’s gain is at another’s expense, especially in a group.But, if a group is dependent on another group, opposing forces are stimulated if one’s gain is at another’s expense. * Dependence/interdependence of groups iii. Personal Variables * Differing individual value systems: The most overlooked variable is social conflict, i. e. differing value systems. They are differences such as prejudices, disagreements over one’s contribution in the group and rewards one deserves and the likes. * Personality types: Having employees with different or opposing personality type, may lead to conflicts.Eg: Individuals who are dogmatic and highly authoritarian and who demonstrate low esteem may lead to potential conflict. Stage 2: Cognition and Personalization: If the conditions cited in stage 1 negatively affect something that one party cares about, then the potential for opposition or incompatibility becomes actualized in the second stage. The antecedent conditions can only lead to conflict when one or more of parties are affected by, and aware of, the conflict. As we noted in our definition of conflict, perception is required.Therefore, one or more of the parties must be aware of the existence of the antecedent conditions. However, because a conflict is perceived does not mean that it is personalized. Example: A may be aware that B and A are in serious disagreement†¦ but it may not make A tense or anxious, and it may have no effect whatsoever on A’s affection towards B. It is at the felt level, when individuals become emotionally involved, that parties experience anxiety, tension, frustration or hostility. IMPORTANCE OF STAGE 2:It is where conflict issues tend to be defined. It is the stage where the parties decide what the conflict is about. As a result this â€Å"sense making† is critical because t he way a conflict is defined goes a long way towards establishing the sort of outcomes that might settle it. Example: if I define our salary disagreement as a zero –sum situation –that is, if you get the increase in pay you want, there will be just that amount less for me- I am going to be far less willing to compromise than if I frame the conflict win- win situation (i. e. the dollar in the salary pool might be increased so that both of us could get the adds pay we want) ROLE OF EMOTIONS IN STAGE 2: Emotions play a major role in shaping perceptions. As they are classified into two: i) Negative emotions- to produce over simplification of issues, reduction in trust, and negative interpretations of the other party’s behavior. ii) Positive emotions- to increase the tendency to see potential relationships among the elements of problem, to take a broader view of the situation and to develop more innovative solutions. Stage 3: Intentions:Intentions are decisions to ac t in a given way in a conflict. Intentions intervene between people’s perception and emotions and their behaviour. The dimensions of intentions are: * Cooperativeness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party’s concerns) * Assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own concerns) Using these two dimensions five conflict handling intentions can be identified. When concern for the self is low, they could be unassertive and if concern for the self is high, they could be very assertive.If the concern for others is low then they tend to be uncooperative and vice versa. 1) Competing: When one person seeks to satisfy his or her own interests regardless of the impact on the other parties to the conflict, he/she is competing. A competing style is high on assertiveness and low on cooperativeness. Competing style may be necessary when a quick, decisive action is required or when unpopular courses on important issues need to be implemented such as cost cutting and discipline a staff member. In addition this style may be required when â€Å"you know you are right† is an issue. ) Collaborating: A situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all the parties. In collaborating, the intention of the parties is to solve the problem by clarifying differences rather than by accommodating various points of view. A collaborating style is high on both cooperation and assertion. The parties to a conflict view it as a problem solving situation. A problem solving approach requires the following conditions: * The parties to a conflict channel their energies in solving the problem rather than defeating each other. The goals, opinions, attitudes and feelings of all parties are accepted * The parties should realize that the conflict issue can make an effective contribution to the quality of human relationships if the issue is solved through a supporting and trusting cli mate. A critical concept is here that no blame is assigned to anyone and the issue is kept in focus. It is time consuming and may be costly when many individuals are involved. It can be used in following situations: * When there is a high level of trust When you don't want to have full responsibility * When you want others to also have â€Å"ownership† of solutions * When the people involved are willing to change their thinking as more information is found and new options are suggested 3) Avoiding:  A person may recognize that a conflict exists and want to withdraw from it or suppress it. Avoiding includes trying to just ignore a conflict and avoiding others with whom you disagree. Avoiding might take the form of postponing an issue for a better time or simply withdrawing from a threatening issue.An avoiding style may reflect a failure to address important issues and a tendency to remain neutral when there is a need to take position. It can be advisable in situations like: * When more information is needed to take a good decision * When you desire that people should cool down so that they regain their perspective after which tension may be handled properly and productively * When someone else can resolve the conflict more effectively 4) Accommodating: when one party seeks to appease an opponent, that party may be willing to place the opponent’s interests above his or her own.One party is willing to be self-sacrificing in order to maintain the relationship. This style is low in assertiveness and high in cooperativeness. A person who uses this style may be showing too little concern for personal goals as a result it may lead to lack of influence and recognition. The conflict is resolved without each party to a conflict presenting his or her own views. This style may be useful in following situations: * When maintaining harmony is more important * A conflict issue is more important to other person * Where relationships involved are more highly val ued then a conflict issue ) Compromising: A situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up something. Compromise is a common and practical approach to conflict management, in which two equally strong and persuasive parties attempt to work out a solution. It is an important style to settle complex issues in the short run. It can also be used as a backup mode when both collaboration and competition fail to work effectively in resolving the conflicts. Conclusion: Intentions provide general guidelines for parties in a conflict situation. They define each party’s purpose. Yet people intention is not fixed.During the course of conflict, they might change because of an emotional reaction to the behavior of other party. Stage IV: Behaviour: * The behaviour stage includes the statements, actions and reactions of conflicting parties. * This conflict behaviour is clear attempts to implement each party’s intention. * It is a dynamic process of interaction with a continuum. * Outcome maybe functional-improving group performance OR dysfunctional-hampering group performance. * When most people think of conflict situation they tend to focus on stage IV because this where conflict becomes visible.The behaviour stage includes the statements, actions and reasons made by the conflicting parties. These conflict behaviours are usually overt attempts to implement each party’s intentions, but they have stimulus quality that is separate from intentions. As a result of miscalculations or unskilled enactments, overt behaviour sometimes deviates from original intentions. * It helps to think of stage IV as a dynamic process of interaction. For Example: you make a demand on me, I respond by arguing, you threaten me, I threaten you back, and so on. * All conflicts exist somewhere along this continuum.At the lower part of the continuum, we have conflicts characterized by subtitle, indirect and highly controlled forms of tension, such as a student quest ioning in class a point the instructor has just made. Conflict intensities escalate as they move upward along the continuum rage. * The outcomes may be functional or dysfunctional. Functional -improving group performance. Dysfunctional -hampering group performance. For the most part, conflicts that reach the upper ranges of the continuum are almost always dysfunctional. Functional conflicts are typically confined to the lower range of the continuum.STAGE V: Outcomes: The action-reaction interplay between the conflicting parties results in consequences or outcomes. These outcomes may be: * Functional in that the conflict results in an improvement in the group’s performance, or * Dysfunctional in that it hinders group performance. Functional conflict: A functional conflict is a confrontation between groups that enhances and benefits the organization’s performance. * For example, two departments in a hospital may be in conflict over the most efficient and adaptive method of delivering health care to low-income rural families.Two departments agree on the goal but not on the means to achieve it. * Whatever the outcome, the low-income rural families probably will end up with better medical care once the conflict is settled. Without this type of conflict in organizations, there would be little commitment to change, and most groups would become stagnant. Functional conflict can lead to increased awareness of problems that need to be addressed, result in broader and more productive searches for solutions, and generally facilitate positive change, adaptation, and innovation.Dysfunctional conflict: A dysfunctional conflict is any confrontation or interaction between groups that harms the organization or hinders the achievement of organizational goals. Management must seek to eliminate dysfunctional conflict. Beneficial conflicts can often turn into harmful ones. In most cases, the point at which functional conflict becomes dysfunctional is impossible to ide ntify precisely. The same level of stress and conflict that creates a healthy and positive movement toward goals in one group may prove extremely disruptive and dysfunctional in another group.A group’s tolerance for stress and conflict can also depend on the type of organization it serves. Auto manufacturers, professional sports teams, and crisis organizations such as police and fire departments would have different points where functional conflict becomes dysfunctional than would organizations such as universities, research and development firms, and motion-picture production firms. Conflict can be considered as functional or dysfunctional depending on its effects on the organizational performance. Conflict also affects relationships within and between groups in several ways.We will look first at changes that typically occur within conflicting groups and then at the changes that occur in the relations between such groups. Changes within Groups: Within groups engaged in confl ict, the following changes are often observed: 1. First, external threats such as conflict bring about increased group cohesiveness. As a result, groups engaged in conflict become more attractive and important to their own members. 2. Increased cohesiveness suggests that conformity to group norms becomes more important. This may take the form of blind acceptance of dysfunctional solutions to the conflict.This is referred to as the emphasis on loyalty. 3. Ongoing conflict also stimulates an emphasis on task performance. All efforts within each conflicting groups are directed towards meeting the challenge posed by other groups, and concerns about individual satisfaction lose importance. 4. A sense of urgency surrounds task performance; defeating the enemy becomes uppermost, and there is much less goofing off. 5. In addition, when a group is in conflict, otherwise reluctant members will often submit to autocratic leadership to manage crisis, perceiving participative decision making as slow and weak. . A group in such circumstances is also likely to place much more emphasis on standardized procedures and centralized control. Changes between Groups: In addition to these four changes within groups, four changes often occur in relations between conflicting groups: 1. Hostility often surfaces in the form of hardened â€Å"we-they attitudes†. Each group sees itself as virtuous and other groups as enemies. 2. During conflicts, the perceptions of each group’s members become distorted. Group members develop stronger opinions of the importance of their unit. The marketing group in a business organization may think, â€Å"Without us selling the product, there would be no money to pay anyone else’s salary†. * The production group, meanwhile, will say, â€Å"if we don’t make the product, there is nothing to sell. † 3. The final change between groups is decreased communication. This can be extremely dysfunctional. The decision-making p rocess can be disrupted, and the customers or others whom the organization serves can be affected. PROCESS OF CONFLICT (As Proposed by Ashwathappa) The process of conflict comprises of five stages: 1. Latent Conflict 2.Perceived Conflict 3. Felt Conflict 4. Manifest Conflict 5. Conflict Outcome 1. Latent Conflict: When two or more parties need each other to achieve desired objectives, there is potential for conflict. Other antecedents of conflict such as interdependence, different goals, etc, do not automatically create conflict. But when they exist, they make it possible. Latent conflict often arises when a change occurs. Conflict is likely to be caused by a budget cutback, a change in organizational direction, a change in personal goals or the assignment of a new project to an already overloaded team.Antecedents of conflict: * Incompatible personalities or value systems. * Overlapping or unclear job boundaries. * Competition for limited resources. * Inadequate communication. * Int erdependent tasks. * Organizational complexity (conflict tends to increase as the number of hierarchical layers and specialized tasks increase). * Unreasonable or unclear policies, standards or rules. * Unreasonable deadline or extreme time pressure. * Collective decision making (the greater the number of people participating in a decision, the greater the potential for conflict). * Decision making by consensus. Unmet expectations (employees who have unrealistic expectations about job assignment, pay or promotions are more prone to conflict). * Unresolved or suppressed conflict. 2. Perceived Conflict: This is the stage at which members become aware of a problem. Incompatibility of needs is perceived and tension begins as the parties begin to worry about what will happen. But no party feels that it is being overly threatened. 3. Felt Conflict: At this stage, parties become emotionally involved and begin to focus on differences of opinion and opposing interests- sharpening perceived c onflict.Internal tensions and frustration begin to crystallize around specific, defines issues, and people begin to build an emotional commitment to their position. 4. Manifest Conflict: At this stage, parties engage in actions that help achieve own objectives and thwart those of others. Conflict behaviours vary from the subtle, indirect and highly controlled forms of interference, to direct, aggressive, violent and uncontrolled struggle. At the organisational level, strikes or lock-outs are the result. 5.Conflict Outcome: The conflict finally results in an outcome, which may be functional or dysfunctional. * Functional conflict refers to confrontation between two ideas, goals and parties that improve employees’ and the organisation’s performance. * Dysfunctional conflict is the negative side of functional conflict. * If the conflict is handled well, the result is functional conflict. * If the conflict is mishandled, the consequence is dysfunctional conflict. MANAGING CONFLICT 1. CONFLICT RESOLUTION TECHNIQUESProblem solving| Face-to-face meeting of conflicting parties to identify ;resolve conflict through open discussion| Super ordinate goals| Creating a shared goal that cannot be attained without the cooperation of each conflicting party| Expansion of resources| Expansion of resources can create a WIN-WIN situation| Avoidance| Withdrawal from, or suppression of the conflict| Smoothing| Playing down differences while emphasizing common interests between conflicting parties| Compromise| Each party to the conflict gives up something of value| Authoritative command| Management uses its formal authority to resolve the conflict, then communicates it to the conflicting parties| Altering human variables| Using behavioral change techniques, such as human relations training to alter attitudes ; behaviors that cause conflict| Altering structural variables| Changing formal organizational structure ; interaction of patterns of conflicting personalities thro ugh ob design, transfers, creating of coordinating positions etc| 2. CONFLICT STIMULATION TECHNIQUESCommunication| Using ambiguous or threatening messages to increase conflict levels| Bringing in outsiders| Adding employees to a group whose backgrounds, values attitudes or managerial styles differ from those of present members| Restructuring the organization| Realigning work groups, altering rules ; regulations, increasing interdependence, ; making similar structural changes to disrupt the status quo| Appointing a Devil’s Advocate| Designating a critic to purposely argue against majority positions held by the group. | TYPES OF CONFLICT ; RESOLUTION 1) INTRA – PERSONAL CONFLICT 2) INTER – PERSONAL CONFLICT 3) INTRA – GROUP CONFLICT 4) INTER – GROUP CONFLICT 1. INTRA – PERSONAL CONFLICT: Intra personal conflict refers to the discord that occurs within an individual.It is also called ‘Intra individual Conflict’ or ‘Intra psyc hic Conflict’ and is often studied by psychologists and personality theorists who are interested in the dynamics of personality and factors that pre-dispose people to inner conflicts. * Intra personal conflict can develop out of a person’s thoughts, ideas, emotions, values and pre-dispositions. This type of conflict is important because we encounter it on a daily basis and have to negotiate through it. * Though conflicts are usually viewed as negative, intra personal conflict has certain benefits. Healthy conflict provides an individual with the skills needed to develop better relationships, gain an understanding of oneself, increase resolution skills and avoid negative and damaging reactions.Intra personal conflict can be disruptive and stressful if we do not understand our own needs and desires. Therefore, it is important to understand our deep emotions and interests and stay in touch with ourselves. Causes of Intra personal Conflict: Intra personal conflict occurs w hen there is incompatibility or inconsistency among an individual’s cognitive elements. It implies that a new cognitive element is at variance with a prior explanation or expectation. Causes: * Difficulty in making a decision because of uncertainty. * Individual’s are pushed or pulled in opposite direction, i. e. , attractive or unattractive alternatives. * Simultaneous forces of about equal strength. A person is motivated to engage in two or more mutually exclusive situations. * When a person is required to perform a task that does not match his/her expertise, interests, goals and values. Intra personal conflict also arises from frustration, numerous roles which demand equal attention but is not always possible to devote, goals having both negative and positive aspects, cognitive dissonances, and neurotic tendencies. Conflict from Frustration: Frustration occurs when a motivated drive is blocked before a person reaches a desired goal. GOALS (Reduction of Drives ; fulf ills Deficiency) BARRIERS i. Overt ii. Covert DRIVE (Deficiency with Direction)NEED (Deficiency) ( DEFENCE MECHANISMS A. Aggression B. Withdrawal C. Fixation D. Compromise FRUSTRATION * An individual driven by an inner state of deficiency engages in some action to fulfill the deficiency. * But his/her attempts to reach the goal are checked by barriers which may be Overt (external) or Covert (internal). * The overt barriers may be social or non-social * The social barriers are those which are placed by others in the way of reaching one’s goal. * The non-social barriers include floods, power failures, etc. * The covert barriers are those which are inherent or within an individual. These last longer than the external barriers. The internal barriers include physical weakness, disabilities, personal limitations like lack of skill and intelligence, etc. * Blocked by these barriers, an individual becomes frustrated for being unable to reach his/her goal. * Frustration normally trigg ers defence mechanisms in the person. Defence mechanisms refer to unconscious processes that protect an individual from anxiety, stress, external threats, etc. * They do not alter the objective conditions of danger, but simply change the way a person perceives it. They involve an element of self-deception. * The frustrated individual adopts any of the four defence mechanisms: Aggression, Withdrawal, Fixation or Compromise. Aggression refers to the attack of the barriers, physically or symbolically. * Withdrawal refers to backing away from the barrier. * Fixation refers to the continuation of efforts to break the barrier. * Compromise refers to the search for a new goal. * Conflict occurs in all the defence mechanism situations. Goal Conflict: Goal conflict is more complex than conflict from frustration and occurs when the attainment of one goal excludes the possibility of attaining another. There are four major forms of goal conflict. They are: 1. Approach-Approach Conflict 2. Appro ach-Avoidance Conflict 3. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict 4. Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict 1. Approach-Approach Conflict: This conflict arises when the individual is caught between two or more positive but mutually exclusive goals. * Approach-Approach conflict is hardly a conflict at all, because whichever choice the individual makes, he/she will attain a positively valued outcome. * Such a conflict is easily resolved by satisfying one goal first, then the other- Eg. Eating first and then sleeping. * Alternatively, this conflict is resolved by giving up on one of the goals. Obviously, Approach-Approach conflict does not generate much anxiety. Unfortunately, Approach-Approach conflict does not always end as stated. Often, when the choice is made, â€Å"decision regret† may occur. The option not chosen now becomes more attractive, simply because it was not chosen.Decision regret may lead decision makers to reconsider the positive aspects of the chosen option and give them m ore weight to justify and validate the decisions made. 2. Approach-Avoidance Conflict: * This conflict occurs when an individual is simultaneously attracted to and repelled by a single goal object. * If the motive to avoid the goal is stronger than the motive to approach it, the person will be caught where the strengths of the motives are roughly equal. * As the person moves towards or away from the goal, the relatively stronger motive takes over and brings the person back to the point where he/she vacillates. Generally, the Approach-Avoidance conflicts that are most pervasive and difficult to resolve take place in the following: i. Independence vs.Dependence: In times of stress, a person feels like resorting to the dependency characteristic of childhood, to have someone take care of a person and solve his/her problems. But he/she is taught to stand on his/her own feet which is a mark of maturity. ii. Co-operation vs. Competition: A person is taught to compete with others and make a success of one’s own efforts. At the same time, one is taught to co-operate and be helpful to others. iii. Impulsive Expression vs. Moral Standards: All societies place some degree of regulation upon impulse control. Sometimes. A person’s impulses may conflict most frequently with normal standards, and violation of these standards may generate strong feelings of guilt.The Approach-Avoidance conflict is most relevant to the study of Organizational behaviour. Generally, organisational goals have both positive and negative aspects for organizational participants, and hence, it may arouse a great deal of conflict within a person and can actually cause the person to vacillate anxiously at the point where approach equals avoidance. 3. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: * This conflict occurs when an individual is forced to choose between two mutually exclusive goals, each of which possesses unattarctive qualities. The net result is that a person is caught between two options. * Faced with an Avoidance-Avoidance conflict, most people will vacillate between the two options, without resolving the conflict. In the context of an organization, Avoidance-Avoidance conflict may be exemplified by a worker who is caught in the dilemma of bearing with the supervisor whom he detests most and quitting the organization and remaning jobless. Two kinds of behaviour are likely to be conspicuous in Avoidance-Avoidance conflicts. * The first is vacillation. As the growth of a goal increases, the closer a person gets to the goal. As the person approaches a negative goal, he/she finds it increasingly repelling. Consequently, the person tends to withdraw, but when a person does this, he/she comes closer to the negative goal and finds it in turn increasing the negative valence. * A second feature of this kind of conflict is an Attempt to Leave the conflict situation.Theoretically, a person might escape Avoidance-Avoidance conflict by running away from it altogether. But in pract ice, however, there are additional negative goals in the periphery of the situation and these prevent us from leaving. A person in Avoidance-Avoidance conflict may resort to other means to get relief from anxiety aroused by the conflict. 4. Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict: Often we are confronted with several possibilities for action, each having several desirable and undesirable features. A conflict of this type in which two alternatives- both involving positive and negative features- is referred to as a Double Approach-Avoidance Conflict or a Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict. Role Conflict: The final reason for intra-personal conflict is the need of an individual to play several roles simultaneously but finding time and resources inadequate to do so. * Role conflict is a type of social conflict caused from an individual being forced to take on separate and incompatible roles. * Role conflicts can occur individually, as in the case of one person being torn between separate roles for different organizations or groups, or within an organization, when an individual is asked to perform multiple roles in the same group. * Although all the roles which individuals bring into the organization are relevant to their behaviour in the study of Organizational behaviour, the organizational role is the most important. Cognitive Dissonance: * Cognitive Dissonance can lead to intra-personal conflict. Dissonance is the state of psychological discomfort or conflict created in people when they are faced with two or more goals or alternatives to a decision. * Although these alternatives occur together, they do not belong or fit together. * Cognitive Dissonance occurs when individuals recognize inconsistencies in their own thoughts and behaviours. * Such inconsistencies are stressful and uncomfortable, leading to intra-personal conflict. * Employees seek to remove inconsistencies by changing thoughts and behaviours, or by obtaining more information about the issue that is causing the dissonance. But cognitive dissonance, till it is removed, remains a source of conflict. Neurotic Tendencies: These are irrational personality mechanisms that an individual uses that create inner conflict. In turn, inner conflict often results in behaviours that lead to conflict with other people. * One example of neurotic action is the excessive use of tight organizational controls by neurotic managers, because they distrust people. Their excessive distrust and need to control, triggers conflict with others, especially subordinates who come to feel micromanaged and distrusted. * A common reaction to leaders with neurotic tendencies is either overt (open) or covert (hidden) aggression and hostility. Subordinates often try to settle the score and protect themselves from further abuse. These actions give the manager an even stronger sense of employee worthlessness. The manager’s hostility and attempts to control and punish become even more vigorous. STRATEGIES FOR R ESOLVING INTRA-PERSONAL CONFLICTS: Intra-personal conflict arises from frustration, competing roles, or goals having positive or negative aspects. 1. Conflict from Frustration: * To the extent that conflict from frustration results from blocked goal realization, removal of barriers (overt and covert) will help resolve this conflict. It is the manager’s responsibility to clear his employee’s path for advancement in his career. * Frustration is not always bad- it may contribute to improved performance.The frustrated individual may divert his attention from barriers, towards his job and try to show better results. * This is particularly true with an individual who has a self concept that includes confidence in being able to do a job well. But this is no consolation for a manager to ignore the frustration of an employee. If conflict from frustration is not resolved for long, the manager will be running the risk of losing the services of a competent and sincere employee. 2. Goal Conflict: Goal conflict has three main dimensions: approach-approach conflict, approach-avoidance conflict and avoidance-avoidance conflict. * Of the three, approach-approach conflict has the least impact on organisational behaviour.The manager’s involvement is not needed to resolve the conflict. It is best resolved by the employee himself/herself. The well known theory of Cognitive Dissonance helps the individual resolve the approach-approach conflict. The theory states that the person experiencing dissonance will be highly motivated to reduce or eliminate it and will actively avoid situations and information which would increase it. * Approach-avoidance conflict can be resolved by refusing to select either approach (positive aspect) or avoidance (negative aspect) choice. But an organizational member cannot avoid the conflict situation. He/she is forced to make a decision, and is therefore, exposed to conflict.This conflict too can be resolved in the same way as cognit ive dissonance: having decided either way (approach or avoidance), the individual may defend the decision. The manager has a responsibility to help the individual defend his/her choice. * Avoidance-avoidance conflict may be resolved by examining and solving the problems causing the conflict. An understanding of the reasons may help a person to overcome any prejudice he/she has developed against another person. Sound counseling from another person will be highly useful to the affected party. 3. Role Conflict: Role conflict can be resolved by minimizing the number of roles and fixing priorities for them. Once the priorities are determined, there must be no overlapping of roles. Much of the intra-personal conflicts in an organizational member can be resolved by developing compatibility between his/her personal and organizational goals. * A realization that he/she is working for the organisation and not for the managers will help him/her regain his/her balance and remain cool, irritants and hassles notwithstanding. The best solution for intra-personal conflict is to look to Hindu Philosophy and learn a valuable lesson from it. According to the philosophy, an individual is composed of three Gunas or psychogenic substances. They are: Sattwa, Rajas and Tamas. * Sattwa: It means Purity, Serenity, Poise, Calmness, Discrimination, Compassion, Clarity, Goodness, Altruism, Dispassion, Contentment, etc. , or together known as ILLUMINATION. Rajas: It means Love of Fame, Passion, Lust, Strife, Impatience, Jealousy, Pride, Display of Power, etc. , or together known as MOVEMENT. * Tamas: It means Anger, Pride, Ignorance, Stolidity, Offering Resistance, Inertia, forgetfulness, Confusion, Darkness, Brutality, etc. , or together known as OBSTRUCTION. It is essential that one should develop sattwic gunas in oneself, be it the manager or the managed. One can develop sattwic quality by reading holy scripts, regular prayers, moving with pious people, and leading a disciplined life. U nfortunately, modern organizations are filled with people who are imbedded with rajasic or tamasic qualities. Hence, the absence of harmonious industrial relations. 2. INTER- PERSONAL CONFLICT:Too often when a conflict occurs between supervisor-subordinate, employees-customers, coworkers, or even friends, there tends to be either a fight (personal attacks) or a flight (embarrassed silence or leaving) response. Neither is an effective way of handling interpersonal conflict. More appropriate for resolving conflict and preserving positive relationships would be to follow this process. 1. Allow time to cool off. 2. Analyze the situation. 3. State the problem to the other person. Some other strategies for resolving conflicts are: * LOSE – LOSE: In this lose-lose approach to conflict both the parties lose. This approach can take several forms. One very common approach is to compromise or take the middle ground in a dispute. A second form can be to pay off one of the parties in the conflict.These payments can take the form of bribes. A third approach can be to use an outside party or arbitrator to settle the dispute. A fourth approach can be to resolve the conflicts through the existing rules and law. It can sometime resolve the conflicts but the results are not always as desirable as win-lose and especially win-win approach. Lose-lose conflict is damaging and unhealthy to a relationship. Some people try to avoid conflict because they feel it's negative and will hurt someone's feelings. People like this will lose out because they don't give their honest opinion or feedback. They become too concerned with how other people feel at the expense of their own feelings. WIN – LOSE: A win-lose conflict means just that–win or lose. It's a type of conflict where just one person wins the argument while the other one feels bad. It's a game to those who view conflict as a battle to win at all times and at the expense of another person's loss. The win-lose app roach is often used in American business settings. The primary emphasis is on winning all you can, overstate your position, and make decisions quickly. In contrast to this, the Japanese approach to business focuses on team work, cooperation, saving face, avoiding confrontation, understating your position, informally letting others know the bottom line, and reaching areas of agreement.Though win lose strategy helps diffuse conflict, it may not be a permanent solution since the loser will tend to be bitter The following points make the strategy more clear: * There is a clear â€Å"we-they† distinction between the parties. * The parties see the issue from their own point of view. * The emphasis is on the solution rather than on the values, goals and objectives. * There is no planned sequence of activities. * WIN – WIN: It is the most desirable way of resolving conflicts. In this situation, the energies and struggles are directed to solve the problem rather than beating th e other party. The outcomes of this approach are so that both the parties are happy and results have benefits for both the parties.Although this is the difficult most strategy to solve the problems but this should be goal of the managers to resolve interpersonal conflict Interpersonal conflicts arise in every workplace. Supervisors may help reduce the number and severity of these conflicts by: * Emphasizing that employee must, despite their differences, treat each other with respect, dignity and fairness. * Eliminating a defensive climate in which employees judge and criticize each other, have hidden agendas and are close-minded to new ideas and changes. * Establishing a supportive climate where employees openly discuss and understand each other’s ideas and concerns, are willing to listen to each other, and focus on accomplishing their work and group goals. Providing training to employees on improving communication skills and settling differences effectively and on a timely b asis. WAYS OF RESOLVING INTERPERSONAL CONFLICTS: The Defusing Technique: The other person might be angry and may come to the situation armed with a number of arguments describing how you are to blame for his or her unhappiness. Your goal is to address the other’s anger –  and you do this by simply agreeing with the person. When you find some truth in the other point of view, it is difficult for the other person to maintain anger. Empathy: Try to put yourself into the shoes of the other person. See the world through their eyes.Empathy is an important listening technique which gives the other feedback that he or she is being heard. There are two forms of empathy. Thought Empathy  gives the message that you understand what the other is trying to say. You can do this in conversation by paraphrasing the words of the other person. * Exploration: Ask gentle, probing questions about what the other person is thinking and feeling. Encourage the other to talk fully about what is on his or her mind. For example, â€Å"Are there any other thoughts that you need to share with me? † * Using â€Å"I† Statements: Take responsibility for your own thoughts rather than attributing motives to the other person.This decreases the chance that the other person will become defensive. For example, â€Å"I feel pretty upset that this thing has come between us. † This statement is much more effective than saying, â€Å"You have made me feel very upset. † * Stroking: Find positive things to say about the other person, even if the other is angry with you. Show a respectful attitude. For example, â€Å"I genuinely respect you for having the courage to bring this problem to me. I admire your strength and your caring attitude. † 3. INTRA – GROUP CONFLICT: * Intra-group conflict refers to the incompatibility, Incongruence, or disagreement among the members of a group or its subgroups regarding goals, functions, or activities of the gro up. In Intra-group conflict the majority of the members of a group or its subgroups must be involved. Importance of groups: * First, groups are the building blocks of an organization. * Second, groups provide the primary mechanism for the attainment of organizational goals. * Third, groups provide psychological and other support to the individual members. The definition of a group should include the following: * A group must consist of two or more members. * A group must possess a stable structure; * The members should be interdependent. * The members should interact with each other. * The members should work toward the attainment of a common goal(s). Types of Groups: Groups can be broadly classified as formal or informal. 1.Formal Groups: These are further classified as follows: * Task/Functional Groups: Fiedler (1967) classified task groups into three types according to the nature of task interdependencies among group members in attaining their group objectives. * Interacting grou p * Coaching group * Counteracting group * Project Groups 2. Informal Groups: These are further classified as follows: * Interest Groups * Friendship Groups Effects of Intra-group Conflict: * Quality and quantity of team performance are considerably higher in competitive than cooperative conditions, * Heterogeneous members and consequent conflicts of interest and opinion produce better solutions to standardized sets of solutions. Affective conflict negatively influences group performance, group loyalty, work-group commitment, job satisfaction, and intent to stay in the present organization. Sources of Intra-group Conflict: * Leadership Style: * Situation A. * Situation B. * Situation C. * Universalistic approach and contingency approach, * i. e. , System IV for Likert and high concern for both production and people for Blake and Mouton) * Leadership can influence other variables, such as task structure, group composition, and size. * Task Structure * Routine (Simple, defined goals, procedures) * Non-routine (Complex) * Group Composition * Size * Cohesiveness and Group thinkingExternal Threats: 1. The external conflict needs to involve some threat. 2. The external conflict must affect the entire group and all its members equally and indiscriminately, and involve a solution. 3. The group needs to have been an ongoing one with some pre-existing cohesion or consensus, and to have a leadership that can authoritatively enforce cohesion (especially if all the members of the group do not feel the threat). 4. The group must be able to deal with the external conflict, and to provide emotional comfort and support to its members. Intervention: * Process * Team building * Structural * Change group membership * Changing the group size Altering the task * Changing the reward system * Modifying rules, procedures and appeal system. STRATEGIES FOR RESOLVING: 1. Invulnerability 2. Rationale 3. Morality 4. Stereotypes 5. Pressure 6. Self-Censorship 7. Unanimity 8. Mind guards 4. INTER – GROUP CONFLICT: Intergroup relations between two or more groups and their respective members are often necessary to complete the work required to operate a business. Many times, groups inter-relate to accomplish the organization's goals and objectives, and conflict can occur. Some conflict, called functional conflict, is considered positive, because it enhances performance and identifies weaknesses.Dysfunctional conflict, however, is confrontation or interaction between groups that harms the organization or hinders attainment of goals or objectives. Causes of Intergroup Conflict: * One of the most prominent reasons for intergroup conflict is simply the nature of the group. Other reasons may be work interdependence, goal variances, differences in perceptions, and the increased demand for specialists. * Also, individual members of a group often play a role in the initiation of group conflict. Any given group embodies various qualities, values, or unique traits that are created, followed, and even defended. * These clans can then distinguish â€Å"us† from â€Å"them. Members who violate important aspects of the group, and especially outsiders, who offend these ideals in some way, normally receive some type of corrective or defensive response. * Relationships between groups often reflect the opinions they hold of each other's characteristics. When groups share some interests and their directions seem parallel, each group may view the other positively; however, if the activities and goals of groups differ, they may view each other in a negative manner. * When trying to prevent or correct intergroup conflict, it is important to consider the history of relations between the groups in conflict. * History will repeat itself if left to its own devices. Limited resources and reward structures can foster intergroup conflict by making the differences in group goals more apparent.Resolving Inter-group conflict: The approaches available for resolving intra-personal and inter-personal conflicts can be used to solve inert-group disputes too. However, certain unique approaches are available for resolving inter-group conflict. They are: 1. Problem-solving: problem-solving is considered to be the most effective approach available as it emphasizes the attainment of the common interest of both conflicting parties. In the problem-solving strategy, attempts are made to find a solution that reconciles or integrates the need of both the parties. The two parties work together both to define the problem and to identify mutually satisfactory solutions.Moreover, there is open expression of feelings as well as exchange of task related information. 2. Organisation redesign: changing organisational structure is another approach for resolving conflict, particularly when the sources of conflict come from the coordination of work among different departments or divisions. One way of redesigning organisations is to reduce task inter dependence between groups and give each group clear responsibilities. Another way is to transfer or exchange members of conflicting groups. An appeal system may also be developed to eliminate the arbitrary use of power. 3. Super ordinate goals: appealing to super ordinate goals is another way of resolving conflict.The super ordinate goal is a common goal of both conflicting parties and the combined efforts of both parties will be needed to realize the goal. It takes precedence over other goals which may separate the conflicting parties. Survival of the organisation for example, can be a super ordinate goal. Creating awareness that the organisation’s survival will be jeopardized if conflicting groups do not work in unison and can have a salutary effect on disputing parties. 4. Expansion of resources: to the extent that scarce resources cause conflict, removing their scarcity will help resolve conflict. If Upgradation of one’s position has caused ripples elsewhere, some more jobs might be similarly upgraded.If increased budget allocation to one department has caused heart burn to the members of rival departments, the rival division’s allocation can also be correspondingly increased, and so on. 5. Avoidance: when the issue is trivial, avoidance strategy will be useful. In the avoidance strategy, the party or parties to the conflict may either withdraw from the conflict or conceal the incompatibility. In the first instance, one of the conflicting parties or both will withdraw from the conflicting situation. Where avoidance is not possible, concealing the fact by either or both conflicting parties that there is conflict may help defuse the conflict. 6. Smoothen: the process of playing down the differences between the individual and groups and highlighting their common interest is called smoothening.Finding and emphasizing similarities between conflicting parties, while playing down differences, can eventually lead the parties to realize that the two are not as f ar apart as was first believed. With shared viewpoints on some issue, the ability to work towards a smoothen can help reduce the intensity of the conflict and avoid an escalation of open hostility. However, smoothen is recommended as a stop gap measure to let people cool down and regain perspective. CASE STUDIES 1. Maruti Suzuki (Manesar) Company Profile: * MSIL – Maruti Suzuki India Ltd * It is a Japanese automobile company * Publicly listed automaker in India * First to mass produce and sell more than million cars The company's headquarters are located Kasturba Gandhi Marg in New Delhi. * Products: Maruti 800, Alto, Wagnor, Ritz, Swift, Dzire, Omni, Kizashi Evolution in India: * 2 phases pre-liberalization (1983-1996) * 2 phases post liberalization (1997-2001) * Employee number : 6,903 * Style of management : Japanese style * Captured and maintains 80% market share Reasons for choosing Maruti Manesar: * It is the most recent organizational conflict * Shows practical framewo rk of theory * Availability of proper and abundant information * It is a classic example of inter-group conflict Case Findings: * Management-Worker rift reasons: * WORKERS’ TAKE: Workers were paid lesser than counterparts in other locations * Workers were paid lesser than competitor’s workers in same position * Contract , permanent and seasonal workers were paid same wages * Working conditions – only 7 minutes tea break (both shifts) – Not allowed to attend nature’s call * The managers and supervisors resorted to use of derogatory and abusive behaviour constantly. * MANAGEMENTS APPROACH: * CEO Shinzo Nakanishi said he did not have any indication of such discontent. * workers did not attend the pre-shift meetings * Workers productivity was less, hence they were laid off Result: * Workers’ demands of wage hike not met immediately * First Step – AVOIDANCE * Second Step – De-recognition * Third Step – Fired workers * Plant a nd company’s productivity suffered almost 50% * Company’s goodwill marred Comparison between Theory and Practice: Summary & Conclusions: * It is a case of inter-group conflict It followed closed leadership style & is latent conflict * Discontent was brewing for over an year before the volcano erupted * The management should have been pro-active * Channels of communication must be strengthened * The workers should not have resorted to violence * Proper conflict resolution system should be put in effect and its presence communicated to all * Management should have empathized. * Management should alternate conflict resolution strategy as per situation 2. Indian Healthcare Organization (A Case Study on inter-personal and inter-group conflicts) Profile: * The Indian Healthcare Organization is situated in the Budgam district of Jammu and Kashmir. * The hospital is a non-profit one, formed in the year 1979. Reasons for choosing this case study: This case contains both, inter- personal & inter-group conflicts * Conflicts in a medical organisation will drastically affect the society * Through this case, we can get a clear understanding of the: * Conflict Process * Adult egos * WIN-WIN situation Situation: * One fine morning, the Indian Healthcare Organization was gearing up for its monthly meeting of the Chief Medical Officer (CMO), its other Medical and Para-medical officers. * Mr. Kumar, who is one of the paramedics in the hospital, had fixed a prior appointment in connection with discussing some problem with the CMO, Mr. Sharma, through the CMO’s personal assistant (PA). As he approached the PA’s room, a saw a Dr. Kapoor, one of the doctors in the hospital, talking to the PA. So he waited outside for sometime. * As the time of the meeting was approaching nearer, he went inside the PA’s room and reminded the PA of his appointment. At this Dr. Kapoor got very much irritated and annoyed for this interruption and shouted at him to leave the room, calling him an idiot. * Mr. Kumar was taken aback and felt crest fallen and started murmuring and came out of the room teary eyed. * Mr. Kumar reported the matter to his fellow paramedics who were standing outside in the corridor. All of them got infuriated and took it as an insult to the whole group. In this process, other doctors who had assembled there asked Dr. Kapoor about what has happened and learning of the whole situation, advised Mr. Kumar to forget the incident and seek a fresh appointment. * At this, a strong reaction came from the paramedics’ group and they started protesting and raising slogans. This protest eventually led to verbal as well as physical abuses between the two groups. * The CMO, Mr. Sharma came out of his Room after hearing the loud voices. Seeing the protests, he called Mr. Kumar and his group to his room to hear from them about the situation. * The group requested Dr. Sharma for immediate justice in the form of a written apology from Dr. Kapoor to Mr.Kumar, who for his no fault was badly insulted. At this, Dr. Sharma was shocked. * After this, Dr. Sharma also called Dr. Kapoor and his group members inside to hear their version and informs them about the APOLOGY demanded by the other group. They refused to do the same. * At this point Dr. Sharma was wondering how to conduct the monthly meeting. He started thinking as how to end this conflict between MEDICAL AND PARAMEDICAL GROUP. * MR. SHARMA decides to call MR. KUMAR and DR. KAPOOR together to sort out their problem. Result: * DR. KAPOOR and MR. KUMAR sit face to face in the presence of DR. SHARMA * They realize they are fighting over a petty issue They reconcile and communicate this to their respective groups who in turn mellow down. Comparison between Theory and Practice: Theory PUT into practice | Theory NOT put into Practice | * Dr. Sharma used Exploration technique. * DR. SHARMA also used problem solving and smoothing techniques of conflict resolution. * Bo th the parties compromised in the end and let go of â€Å"adult ego†. | * Since it is a case of conflicting personalities, STAGE IV (Behaviour) becomes STAGE I here. * Mr. Kumar did not approach the Redressal Forum. * Dr. Sharma approached both parties separately. * Both the groups did not follow protocol. | FINDINGS: It is an inter-personal conflict which blew up into an inter-group conflict * It is a WIN-WIN situation * It is also Felt conflict with parties becoming emotionally involved. * DR. SHARMA used the problem solving conflict resolution technique * The smoothing technique is also used SUGGESTIONS: * The PA should have acted in a more responsible manner * Dr. Kapoor should not have resorted to abusing Mr. Kumar * Mr. Kumar should not have involved his colleagues * Dr. Kapoor should also have refrained from group discussion * Dr. Sharma should not have met the parties separately MANAGING CONFLICT Actions to Avoid in Conflict Resolution: Do not avoid the conflict, hopi ng it will go away. * Do not meet separately with people in conflict. * Do not believe, for even a moment, the only people who are affected by the conflict are the participants. Actions to Undertake: * Ask each participant to describe specific actions they’d like to see the other party take * You, as the supervisor, must own some of the responsibilities * Understand if the situation needs further exploration * All participants discuss and commit * You expect the individuals to resolve the conflicts proactively as adults. * Assure both parties that you have every faith in their ability to resolve their differences BIBLIOGRAPHY Books: Websites: